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Network Protocols
Internet has been around in its current form since the 1980s. What started off as an in-house project in ARPA in 1958 rapidly expanded into what we k…
ICMP Protocol
The ICMP - Time Exceeded message is one which is usually created by gateways or routers. In order to fully understand this ICMP message, you must be…
TCP - UDP Protocol Analysis
This article covers the UDP protocol. We examine the structure of the UDP header, the protocols that use UDP as a transport plus a lot more. Some co…
The OSI Model
The Session layer is responsible for setting up, managing and then tearing down sessions between Presentation layer entities. The Session layer also…

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Netflow Articles:

In this article, we explore the core principles of bandwidth management and examine how modern network monitoring technologies can assist in maintain…
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) and Netflow are both popular protocols with admins, prized for their ability to give visibility over the ne…
In our previous article we explained how a Netflow Analyzer can help you gain visibility into your user traffic, application traffic and data flows w…
Monitoring network traffic & bandwidth usage via Netflow is mandatory for any type and size network. Gaining visibility into user traffic, applic…

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VLAN Networks
We mentioned that Trunk Links are designed to pass frames (packets) from all VLANs, allowing us to connect multiple switches together and independently co…
VLAN Networks
It's easy to see why virtual LANs have become extremely popular on networks of all sizes. In practical terms, multiple VLANs are pretty much the same as h…
VLAN Networks
VTP (VLAN Trunking Protocol) pruning is a feature that is used in Cisco switches to reduce unnecessary traffic in VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network) trunks…
VLAN Networks
Dynamic VLANs were introduced to grant the flexibility and complexity(!) that Static VLANs did not provide. Dynamic VLANs are quite rare because of their…

Routing
This article covers basic OSPF concepts and operation. We explain how OSPF works, how OSPF tables are built on an OSPF-enabled router and their purpose (N…
Routing
IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) is a Cisco proprietary distance-vector routing protocol used in enterprise networks to exchange routing informati…
Routing
This article explains how OSPF uses Link State Advertisement (LSA) to exchange information about the network topology between routers. When a router recei…
Routing
Distance Vector routing protocols use frequent broadcasts (255.255.255.255 or FF:FF:FF:FF) of their entire routing table every 30 sec. on all their interf…

Cisco Wireless
This article explains how to convert a local or remote Autonomous / Standalone Cisco Aironet Access Point to Lightweight and register it to a Cisco WLC Co…
Cisco Routers
Chances are we’ve all needed to upgrade our Cisco’s device IOS software at some point. While upgrading the IOS software on a Cisco device is considered to…
Palo Alto Networks
During the past decade, we’ve seen the global IT security market flooded with new network security and firewall security appliances. New vendors emerging…
SASE & SD-WAN Networks
The Virtual Private Network (VPN) has become the go to security solution for keeping communications between networks and endpoints secure. After all, VPNs…